Sept.
8
-
Academic writing, examples of citations
- Review
of morphology, as presented in LING 220 (Introduction to Linguistics)
-
typology
-
issues for a case study report
Ahead
-
overviews of English and Cree
-
send Dr. Mellow your choices for case study languages
Announcements:
-
the class website has links to library pages with information about researching
your papers
-
addition to syllabus: If the research paper is late, 3 points will be
deducted for each day the assignment is late.
-
Languages selected in a recent class: Basque,
Dutch, German, Finnish, French, Hawaiian, Icelandic, Irish Gaelic, Italian,
Japanese, Korean, Latin, Maori, Mohawk,
Nahuatl,
Palauan, Persian, Philipino/ Tagalog; Polish, Russian, Samoan,
Sesotho, Spanish, Swahili, Tatar, Turkish,
- Languages listed but not selected: Amerindian (category), Ayacucho Quechua, Estonian, Gaelic, Hebrew, Hungarian, Wolof;, Swedish, Tamil, Yawelmani
-
examples of citations
Original
(Wolfart, 1973, p. 15):
The
personal prefixes ki-, ni-, and O mark the basic person categories in the
possessive paradigm of nouns and in the independent order of verbs.
Plagiarism:
Cree
has the personal prefixes ki-,
ni-, and O that mark the basic person categories in the possessive
paradigm of nouns and in the independent order of verbs.
Not
plagiarism, but not your words:
Wolfart
(1973, p. 15) has provided the following summary of these inflectional suffixes:
“[T]he personal prefixes ki-, ni-, and O mark the basic person
categories in the possessive paradigm of nouns and in the independent order of
verbs.”
Better:
Wolfart
(1973, p. 15) reports that Cree has three inflectional prefixes that express
subject agreement with respect to person. These
three prefixes are ki-, ni-, and O.
These prefixes are used for possessed nouns (equivalent to my N or
his N in English) and for a particular configurational meaning of verbs,
the “independent order.” The
independent order is…..
Schedule
of 220 Review
1.
units of analysis:
word
morpheme
2.
Meanings expressed by morphemes
-
reference/lexical categories
-
grammatical meanings
3.
Types of morphological structures
-
affixation (bound, free, prefix, suffix, root, base)
-
compounding
-
cliticization
-
internal change
-
suppletion
-
aditional types: stress and tone placement, conversion; clipping; blends;
backformation; acronyms; onomatopoeia; coinage
4.
Two types of word formation: Inflection vs. Derivation
5.
Allomorphs
6.
Problem-solving
-
Page references are to the standard textbook used at SFU for LING 220:
O’Grady, W., and Archibald, J. (Eds.). (2000). Contemporary
linguistic analysis: An introduction. Toronto: Addison Wesley Longman.
- Katamba pp. 3-5, 17-64 generally provides a review of the introductory
concepts that you were introduced to in LING 220
-
Some of the material in K may be new. For
today, we will focus on the concepts from 220
-
‘morph’ (a manifestation of a morpheme; cf. phone/phoneme, see K 24-27)
word
-- a somewhat imprecise unit:
I’m
– one word or two words?
The
queen of England’s castle - what is the status of the -s ?
greenhouse
– one or two words?
wet
suit – one words or two words?
Qasu-iir-sar-vig-ssar-si-ngit-luinar-nar-puq
‘Someone
did not find a completely suitable resting place’ - Inuktitut (p. 325) – one
word or ten?
Therefore:
morpheme
– the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or
function
book
– one morpheme
book-s
– two morphemes
happi-ness
– two morphemes (don’t be confused by spelling)
re-act-iv-ate
– four morphemes
2.
Some of the meanings expressed by morphemes:
Reference/
Lexical Categories (pp. 169-170)
-
naming entities, including individuals and objects = nouns or N
-
designating actions, sensations and states = verbs or V
-
designating properties and attributes of entities = adjectives or A
-
denoting properties and attributes of actions, sensations and states = adverbs
or Adv
Grammatical
Meanings (pp. 144, 147-153)
-
plural number (books, feet, children)
vs. singular, *dual
- case
– nominative/subject – she, he; accusative / object – her, him; genitive /
possession – her, his; Noam’s idea)
-
past tense (walked, sang, was (vs. be))
-
comparative (smaller, harder)
-
superlative (smallest, hardest)
-
person (I – speaker/first; you – listener/second; he/she/it -
non-speaker/listener/ third; *fourth person – He (3) saw him (4) at school. He (?) was wearing a hat.)
-
noun class – masculine/he; feminine/she; neuter/it (vs. *animate/inanimate,
Siswati classes, p. 148)
3.
Types of morphological structures:
a.
Affixation:
Free
morpheme – can be a word
by itself: book, happy,
act
Bound
morpheme – must be
attached to another element (i.e. a base): -s, -ness, re-, -ive, -ate
Root
morpheme – the core of a complex word. It
carries the major component of word meaning.
It belongs to a lexical category (N, V, A, Adv). In English, the root
morpheme is generally a free morpheme.
Affixes
- bound morphemes that do
not belong to a lexical category: prefix (attached to the front of a
base), suffix (attached to the end of a base), infix (an affix
that occurs within a base – non-existent in English).
A dash attached to the end of the morpheme indicates prefix (pre-, re-).
A dash attached to the beginning of the morpheme indicates suffix (-s,
-ness, -ed).
Examples
of these structures (affixation):
N
A
N
Af
Af
A
book
-s
un-
kind
root/
root/ base
base
V
V
V
Af
V
Af
jump
-ed
teach
-es
root/
base
root/ base
Some
affixes can change the lexical category of the complex word:
N
V
Af
teach
-er
root/
base
3
morphemes in a word:
V
V
Af
A
Af
black
-en
-ed
root/
base
for –en
blacken
is the base for –ed
Types
of morphological structures:
b.
Compounding: The combination of two or more existing words (usually
roots/free morphemes) to create a new word:
street
light blue
bird
washcloth
bookcase
in-group
(don’t
be confused by spelling)
c.
Cliticization: Clitics – morphemes that are bound for
phonological reasons (are not a syllable by themselves)
I’m
leaving
Mary’s
going to succeed.
They’re
here now.
d.
internal change (128-9) a
process that substitutes one non-morphemic segment for another to mark a
grammatical contrast:
sing
sang
drive
drove
goose
geese
The
vowels in these words are not morphemes: [I æ
aj ow uw ij] are not morphemes
e.
suppletion (129) a morphological process that replaces a morpheme with an
entirely different morpheme in order to mark a grammatical contrast:
go
- went
be
– am, are, is, was, were
Partial
suppletion (or an extreme form of internal change):
think thought
seek
sought
have
has
leave
left
Other
types of morphological structures:
(f)
stress and tone placement
(g)
conversion / zero derivation
(h)
clipping
(i)
blends
(j)
backformation
(k)
acronyms
(l)
onomatopoeia
(m)
coinage
4.
Two types of word formation: Inflection
vs. Derivation
Inflection
–
the modification of a word’s form to indicate the grammatical subclass to
which it belongs; expression of a grammatical meaning
-
English has only 8 inflectional affixes and all are suffixes (p. 144), other
languages have thousands and they may be prefixes as well
Table
4.25
Other
ways to show grammatical subclass: suppletion,
internal change
Derivation
– a process (affixation, stress placement, conversion) that forms a word with
a meaning or syntactic category distinct from that of its base.
Suffixes
change syntactic category:
Table
4.13
Prefixes
add additional meaning, especially with respect to negation or repetition
Table
4.13
5.
Allomorphs Variants of a
morpheme that are a combination of differing phonemes:
a
pear, an apple
cats
[kæt s]
dogs
[dαg z]
dishes
[dI∫ ∂z]
walked
[wαk t]
jogged
[dЗαg d]
handed
[hænd ∂d]
sign
[sajn]
signature
[sIgn ∂t∫∂r]
muscle
[mΛs∂l]
muscular
[mΛskjuwl
∂r]
-
Allomorphs help explain certain aspects of English spelling:
Meaning
is conveyed more easily by spelling allomorphs the same way, even though they
are pronounced differently. Thus,
English spelling is not just an alphabet, with symbols corresponding to phonemes
(or phones). English spelling
corresponds to morphemes as well (i.e. logographic).
6.
Problem solving –
-
discovery procedures (K 23-29)
-
Identify recurring strings of sounds and match them to recurring meanings
-
Use the principle of contrast (K23): a morpheme is a phonological sequence (or
shape) that can indicate a contrast in meaning
Finding
English morphemes that indicate past time:
Verb
- present
Verb - past
Morph/ structure
walk
walked
/t/
talk
talked
/t/
flip
flipped
/t/
wish
wished
/t/
jog
jogged
/d/
stab
stabbed
/d/
thaw
thawed
/d/
hand
handed
/∂d/
start
started
/∂d/
sing
sang
Internal
change
drive
drove
Internal
change
think
thought
Partial
suppletion
leave
left
Partial
suppletion
hit
hit
no
change
I
am
I was
suppletion
you
are
you were
suppletion
she
is
she was
suppletion
How
to solve identify morphemes in unfamiliar languages (O pp. 160-161)
1.
Identify recurring strings of sounds and match them to recurring
meanings.
2.
Do not assume that the morpheme order in the language you are analyzing
is the same as English.
3.
Do not assume that every semantic contrast expressed in English will also
be manifested in the language you are analyzing.
4.
Do not assume that every semantic contrast expressed in the language you
are analyzing will also be manifested in English.
5.
Remember that a morpheme can have more than one form (or allomorph).
6.
Some allomorphs vary occurring to the phonetic properties of the base to
which they are attached. e.g.
English plural and past time morphemes
7.
Some allomorphs vary according to subcategories of words to which they
belong. Just as past time in
English is expressed by affixation, internal change, or suppletion, depending
upon the word, some languages will have different allomorphs for certain
sub-classes of words.
Analysis
of morphemes in Turkish (from problem 3, page 161)
Consider
the following Turkish words which have been paired with their English
translations (or glosses).
1.
lokanta ‘a restaurant’
8. lokantada
‘in/at a restaurant’
2.
kapi ‘a door’
9. kapida
‘in/at a door’
3.
randevu
10.
randevuda
‘an appointment’
‘in/at an appointment’
4.
ba∫
‘a head’
11. ba∫ta
‘in/at a head’
5.
kitap ‘a book’
12. kitapta
‘in/at a book’
6.
koltuk
‘an armchair’
13.
koltukta
‘in/at an armchair’
7.
taraf ‘a side’
14. tarafta
‘in/at a side’
1.
Identify recurring strings of
sounds and match them to recurring meanings.
2.
Remember that a morpheme can have more than one form (or allomorph).
a.
List the morphemes corresponding to the following English meanings:
a restaurant
a
door
a
book
lokanta
kapi
kitap
b.
List the allomorphs for the suffix present in words 8 to 14: -da
-ta
c.
Describe the context in which each allomorph is found
-da
occurs when the base ends in a vowel
-ta
occurs when the base ends in a voiceless consonant
d.
Describe the function of the suffix:
The morpheme means ‘in or at’
Morphological
typology:
From:
Whaley, Lindsay. (1997). Introduction
to typology: The unity and diversity of language. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 128-139.
The
word systems of a language can be categorized in reference to two parameters
1.
Index of synthesis
-
Isolating language - every word has only one morpheme in it.
-
Synthetic language - a complete utterance (perhaps a sentence, by English
standards) is / can be formed by combining morphemes into a single word.
ISOLATING<--X---Y------------------Z----->
SYNTHETIC
x =
Mandarin; y = English; z = Cree
2.
Index of fusion
-
Agglutinative - each (?bound/grammatical) morpheme has one meaning / it is clear
where one morpheme ends and another begins / the morphemes are easily
segmentable (cf. English plural -s)
-
Fusional - a (?bound/grammatical) morpheme encodes many meanings/ the boundaries
between morphemes are hard to determine (cf. suppletion) (cf. English third
person singular non-past -s)
AGGLUTINATIVE<---
x--------------- y---> FUSIONAL
x =
Turkish; y = Russian
When
asked to report a case study of the morphology of a language, what are some of
the issues that you could report?
1.0
Position in relation to typological indices
2.0
Detailed information about structures and meanings, providing both an
overview and specific examples, organized structurally or functionally
3.0
Examples of allomorphs, discussed with respect to specific types of
morphemes
4.0
Information about combinatorial possibilities, discussed with respect to
specific types of morphemes
Structural
organization:
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Affixation
2.1
Prefixes
2.1.1
Prefixes attached to nouns (derivational only)
2.1.1.1
Prefixes with fixed phonological forms
2.1.1.2
Reduplicative prefixes
2.1.2
Prefixes attached to verbs
2.1.2.1
The sequencing of inflectional prefixes
2.2
Suffixes
2.2.1 Derivational suffixes
2.2.1.1
Allomorphs of bases, when combined
with
specific suffixes
2.2.2 Inflectional suffixes
2.2.2.1
Allomorphs of suffixes
2.3
Infixes
3.0
Compounding
4.0
Noun Incorporation
5.0
Conclusion
Functional
organization:
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Grammatical Meanings
2.1
Person and Number
2.1.1
Suffixes attached to nouns
2.1.2
Suffixes attached to verbs
2.2
Tense and aspect
2.2.1
Circumfixes attached to verbs
3.0
Lexical category change
3.1
Derviational suffixes that derive nouns
3.2
Derviational suffixes that derive verbs
4.0
Referential combination
4.1
Compounding
4.2
Clitics
4.3
Noun incorporation