TEXT
AID: AN ONLINE STUDENT COMPOSITION
GUIDE
Author: John Whatley
Ph.D.,
Department of English, &
Centre for Distance Education,
© No part of this document can be copied or
distributed in whole or in part
without the expressed written consent by the author. Feel free to link to this document, but please let m know through sending a description of
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Introduction
Text Aid is meant to help your
skill in university writing in the Arts or Humanities. It is best used if you have a
recently returned paper in front of you with your instructor’s comments
included. This guide explains the glosses, corrections, and symbols used by many instructors
in university Arts and related programs today. It allows quick access to the comments you have likely
encountered; it is also designed to help you learn more about the craft of
university level writing. It should help you with: (1) Overall
structures: the design of
your paper, the development of
themes and claims, the quality of your arguments, strategies of persuasion, introductions, transitions, and conclusions; (2) Usage: the accurate and effective use of
language, the development of a formal voice, the use of specialized vocabularies or lexis with an
emphasis on literary terms; (3) Research: the ways to support themes through
secondary reading,
use of quotation, and the
effective integration of library research. Writing in at university is a pressured
affair. In my experience, students often cannot find timely
help with their writing problems.
They do not understand the often painstaking editing they receive on
their papers. It is my hope that by providing ready
online advice in these areas,
your writing will improve and your instructor’s comments will not be
wasted. (click on the hyper link to receive
guidance and some examples in the comment areas)
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Structures
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Formal Usage |
Research |
Grammar &
Punctuation |
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Support logic how to quote Over generalizing |
ambiguity passive constructions use-age use of terminology |
acknow -ledge your source bibliography accuracy of quotation |
agreement antecedent apostrophe or possessive comma splice faulty parallelism incomplete punctuation (in quotations) preposition run on sentence |
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Mechanical Symbols
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FORMAL
STRUCTURE coherence
Coherence
refers to the overall organization or pattern, (or lack of it), of your paper. The more careful you are about working out your paper's
overall design, the more
paragraphs you can connect to it,
and the more you make your reader aware of this design, the better your paper is likely to
be. It will be better
because your reader is then able to follow your thought.
Here are
some well-known simple patterns that can help give your paper coherence:
Here are a
few more complex versions of coherence for research papers:
Example:
Question and Answer
Title:
Mary Shelly’s Frankenstein:
Imagination or Subliminal Confession
Introductory paragraph
Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein
is a novel that has acted as a nucleus for a minor cultural
phenomenon. It would be difficult
to find a culturally connected person in the Western world who didn’t grow up
at least hearing of this monster myth.
It is somewhat more challenging to find people who have actually read
the novel. As a result the monster
somehow came to adopt and has maintained the name of the scientist. A popular question, and one that Shelley
attempted to answer herself fifteen years after writing the novel in her
“Author’s Introduction” was how she came up with the idea for the novel. Her
explanation, that she had had a vivid dream in which the characters were
clearly presented to her, could be accepted as a valid source for the story;
however, given that Mary’s personal life resembled a pathos filled novel, it is
tempting to delve into her
subconscious as a compelling source for this tale.
This
introduction has some strong overall cohesion markers—it asks a “popular
question” and will seek in the course of the paper to answer it. It also crticises an unsupported or
“taken for granted” kind of answer and proposes another and better one: “Mary’s personal life resembled a
pathos filled novel”. The position
of the both question and claim make them the focus of the introduction, and
they require that the claim be proven and the question about how the novel came
into being answered in the course of the paper.
Using such
patterns will help structure your paper.
When a pattern like this is missing or not clearly marked then the paper
becomes difficult to read, it is
digressive, or impressionistic, or
lacks focus.
SUPPORT analysis
Most ways
of organizing a paper, like problem-solution, argument--counter-argument, questions--answers, will require analysis. In addition, instructors will often ask you to support a theme through
analysis of a section of a novel,
poem, or other text. In
order to make a supported claim you might need to show how a passage
works. Analysis can support
your claim. Analysis requires an
impersonal stance; it can be causal or structural (or process)
Causal analysis gives evidence for why something is the way it is. This approach concentrates on
finding and proving causes or reasons for a social practice, an outcome, or an event, or it shows that a cause
has a certain predictable effect. Race prejudice, for instance, could be found
to be caused by a colonial past, or by perceived threats to economic
status, or imagined cultural
differences. Here is an
interesting example of causal
analysis from Marshall McLuhan,
As an extension of the foot, the stirrup enabled men to wear armor on
horseback. Man became a sort of
tank. But armor was
expensive. It required the work
and skill of a craftsman for a year to turn out a full suit of armor. The small farmer could not pay for such
armor. The result was a change in
the entire landholding pattern.
The Feudal System was spurred into existence by the stirrup, the mere
extension of the foot. (McLuhan, “The Role of New Media in Social Change,” in The Canadian Essay, p. 115.)
In this
causal analysis, we see that an invention that might at first be considered
historically insignificant, the stirrup, eventually helped produce (McCluhan
uses "enabled") a major change in social organization, the rise of
the feudal system. Analysis of causal relations can often lead to surprises or
the uncovering of hidden relations, but, even with as respected a theorist as
McLuhan, we would have to ask whether this claim to have found a cause, was
adequately supported.
Another
main type of formal analysis is structural
or process analysis; it tries to answer questions about how something works. In the social sphere, we see it used by
pioneer feminist Mary Wollstonecraft in Vindication
of the Rights of Women (1792?) where gender conventions are made clear
through “deconstructing” them so that we could see their constituent
elements--education, a pattern in language, styles of dress and address, the
law, and other dimensions of social life.
These were seen as determining (causing) a wider pattern of prejudice
against women. Structural analysis can be used in a simple set of directions on
how to build a model airplane or, at the other end of the scale, in a voluminous study of a complex
institution like kinship.
One of the requirements
of effective argument is that you present enough evidence to make your claim
credible. Your evidence should be
robust, relevant, accurate, well documented and current. In student work, coverage most likely rests on studies by experts or the research
findings of authorities in a field
and are obtained through library research.
Coverage is
the backbone of any well constructed argument. If you analyze most good academic writing you’ll find a
convincing amount of illustration, factual studies, data, quotation, or research. Make sure your claim is adequately supported; if you are analyzing
a character in a novel, for instance, make sure you have covered all of the
important events affecting the character and the changes he or she might have
gone through to support your claim.
A checklist
for assessing coverage:
Coverage
SUPPORT expertise
As a student you are likely to turn to recognized experts for the factual evidence for a claim made in your paper. Keep in mind that experts should be relevant, and their credentials current and acceptable; they should also be accurately cited, clearly documented using accepted guides like MLA or the APA style guides, and accurately paraphrased
Expertise
Your task
in most essays or term papers is to answer questions of evidence through
adequate library research and integration of it into your argument. You should also show the status of your
evidence through evaluation of expertise.
When appropriate show the past publishing of the experts you have used,
or other indicators of their expertise like their institutional record. Your
research should present the authority and the evidence for your claim through
careful documentation and through careful assessment of the information
provided by your experts. Present
the issue, cite expertise, show both sides, evaluate the claims, arrive at your own conclusion. Do not get absorbed by your experts.
One
important aspect of tone is the overall set of elements in your writing style
that define your attitude to your reader.
Generally, the tone of an
academic paper should be serious,
diligent, impersonal, and
research oriented, rather than personal,
humorous, uncaring or unconcerned.
You wish to write for effect—to persuade your reader to accept your
claim. Consistent tone then is
important to this effect.
Often
students abruptly change tone, and
often do not know they have done so. Note the following tonal shift—the effect
of a sudden interposition of
familiar and everyday language.
Robert Burton’s The Anatomy of Melancholy, (1628), would among other things, place the mistakes of religion once and for all. Burton is writing in the anxious period that would usher in the Interregnum—a time of sectarianism and religious excess that affected most levels of society. But some of his language is totally crazy, totally uncool. Lawyers, for instance, have become “a general mischief in our times, an unsensible plague, and never so many of them ...thieves and seminaries of discord ... irreligious Harpies, griping catchpoles ... without art, without judgment” (4).
It is almost as if two different writers are active
here. Generally, in academic prose, keep your tone consistent. This is not to say that juxtaposition
of two styles could not be effective, but, again, this should be under your control and should be part
of the effect you wish.
USAGE jargon
Jargon refers to the
unnecessary use of specialized terminology or the overuse of such terminology.
Use terminology carefully. There is much value in using
terms that are appropriate and well used.
The problem lies in how many terms and whether they are appropriate for
your audience.
‘I” PRONOUN “I” pronoun
The “I” pronoun (and its complements in “me” “mine” or familiar uses of “you,” “us” “they” and “we) is one of the primary signifiers of informal discourse and the familiar voice. The use of the ‘I” pronoun allows or invites opinion, immediate responses, personal insights, anecdotes, inclusion of family matters, or of individual experience or emotion. Used extensively in a paper, the “I” pronoun and its relatives mark a familiar essay. Here is a good example from one of the masters of this type of essay:
[W1]When did we ever write so much as since
the beginning of our Civil Wars?
And whenever did the Romans do so as just before their collapse? Each
individual one of us contributes to the corrupting of our time: some contribute treachery, others
(since they are powerful) injustice, irreligion, tyranny, cupidity, cruelty: the weaker ones like me contribute silliness,
vanity and idleness. When harmful
things are compelling then, it seems, is the season for vain ones; in an age
when so many behave wickedly it is almost praiseworthy merely to be useless. I console myself with the thought that
I shall be one of the last they will have to lay hands on. While they are dealing with the more
urgent cases I shall have time to improve, for to me it seems contrary to
reason to punish minor offences while we are ravished by great ones. (Montaigne, Essays, Book 3, 1071)
Note the number of times Montaigne uses“I” and how effective it is in the expression of a feeling—a kind of despair over the vanities and violence of his period. This approach should however be used sparingly in academic prose.
The object of formal academic writing is to convince your reader of a claim through evidence, argument, precise methods and other means of disciplined and considered thought. These require that you do not impose yourself or your personal experience unless it cannot be avoided. The reason is that the level of the claims being made in the formal voice should go beyond individual and personal experience—they are general, not personal. Here is a contrasting example of formal prose taken from Rachel Carson’s now classic green manifesto Silent Spring—note the paucity of the markers of the familiar voice:
The gypsy moth, a
native of Europe, has been in the United States for nearly a hundred
years. In 1869 a French scientist,
Leopold Trouvelot, accidentally allowed a few of these moths to escape from his
laboratory in Medford, Massachusetts, where he was attempting to cross them
with silkworms. Little by little
the gypsy moth has spread throughout New England. The primary agent of its progressive spread is the wind; the
larval, or caterpillar, stage is extremely light and can be carried to
considerable heights and over great distances. Another means is the shipment of plants carrying the egg
masses, the form in which the species exists over winter. They gypsy moth,
which in its larval stage attacks the foliage of oak trees, and a few other
hardwoods for a few weeks each spring, now occurs in all the New England
states. It also occurs sporadically in New Jersey, where it was introduced in
1911 on a shipment of spruce trees from Holland, and in Michigan where its
method of entry is not known. The New England hurricane of 1938 carried it into
Pennsylvania and New York, but the Adirondacks have generally served as a
barrier to its westward advance, being forested with species not attractive to
it. (142)
Opinion is indicated by “I think x is the case” not research. One general rule of thumb: in formal prose treat your reader carefully—if you overuse the “I” pronoun in a paper, it will be received as it would in most face to face communication—you will be perceived as an egotist.
This mark refers to
sentence elements that do not match in case, gender, number or tense. It usually points to agreement between
subjects and verbs (e.g. subject and verb (SV) agreement). It is sometimes used with pronouns and
their antecedents (antecedent).
Examples of Faulty Agreement
1. Each of the books have a certain flair.
The phrase "of the
books" is plural but is not the subject of the sentence--"Each"
is the singular subject.
Correction
Each of the books has a certain flair.
Examples of Faulty Antecedent
1. 0 Neither Bob nor Billy could find their key.
(Hard to tell whether their
key refers back to Bob’s or Billy’s particular keys or to a key shared by
both.)
Correction
Neither Bob nor Billy could find his key.
ANTECEDENT antecedent
This mark refers to a
sentence in which pronouns do not match the nouns they stand for.
Examples of Faulty Antecedent
1. 0 Neither Bob nor Billy could find their key.
(Hard to tell whether their
key refers back to Bob’s or Billy’s particular keys or to a key shared by
both.)
Correction
Neither Bob nor Billy could find his key.
This mark refers to
sentences or clauses that have necessary elements missing. One of the usual problems
is incomplete comparisons.
Example of incomplete
Comparison
1.0 I think that Shakespeare's
conceits are better.
( Hard to find who
Shakespeare is being compared to.
Better than what? )
Correction
1. I think that Shakespeare's conceits are better than Ben Jonson's.
This comment can refer to a
sentence in which a comma is used to join independent clauses not joined by one
of the coordinating conjunctions.
Or it can refer to a sentence in which a comma is used to “splice”
together independent clauses joined by
a conjunctive adverb—a semicolon should have been used.
Example Comma Splice
1.0 It is clear that we
understand each other, I am sure that we will get along.
(Two independent clauses should
not be joined with a comma. Use a
coordinating conjunction, a
semicolon, or separate with a period.)
(Independent Clause: A
clause is a group of words that contains both a subject and a predicate. An
independent clause can stand on its own as a sentence.)
(Coordinating Conjunctions:
and, but, or, nor, so, for, yet.)
Correction
1.1 It is clear that we
understand each other and I am sure that we will get along.
Alternatives
1.2 It is clear that we
understand each other; I am sure that we will get along.
1.3 It is clear that we
understand each other. I am sure that we will get along.
Example (2)
2.0 The bin appeared
empty, however there was one small apple remaining.
(A comma should not be used
to connect two independent clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb like
"however". Use a semicolon or a period between clauses.)
(Conjunctive Adverbs
include: therefore, however, besides,
consequently, furthermore, moreover, likewise, still, thus, nevertheless, as a
result. There are many more conjunctive adverbs.)
Correction
2.1 The bin appeared
empty; however, there was one small apple remaining.
2.2 The bin appeared
empty. However, there was one small apple remaining.
Exception
Commas sometimes separate short
independent clauses, in a series, when they are part of a rhetorical strategy.
e.g. I came, I saw, I
conquered.
This comment refers to a
sentence, which has necessary elements missing, (i.e. the subject, predicate or
both).
Example Sentence Fragment
I
did not go home. Because it was late and raining.
(The subordinate clause
beginning with "because" has been separated from the independent
clause with a period. Reconnect the sentence elements)
Correction
I
did not go home because it was late and raining.
or
Because
it was late and raining, I did not go home.
Example (2)
It
was an amazing performance. One I will never forget.
(Noun clause beginning with
"one" is not an independent clause.)
Correction
It
was an amazing performance, one I will never forget.
Exception
"Will
Pip win out in the end? No! Not if Compeyson has his way."
(Minor sentences or
dependent clauses can sometimes stand on their own. These include:
exclamations, imperatives, and proverbial expressions or aphorisms.)
This mark refers to an
abrupt change in tense or pronoun usage; usually this creates a non-existent or
ambiguous antecedent.
Example of Shift In Point
of View
1.0 One is not sure of
the wrong here, but you had better believe that there is one.
(The change from
"one" to "you" shifts the direction abruptly and pointedly
to the reader, rather than the more polite someone in general of “One”)
Correction
1.1 One is not sure of
the wrong here, but it is clear that a wrong has been done.
Example (2)
2.0 The lecturer got up
from the chair, settled at the
lectern, then he gives us a good speech.
(The past tense of the
first verb " he sat" is abruptly changed to the present tense
"he gives")
Correction
2.1 The lecturer got up
from the chair, settled at the
lectern, then he gave us a good speech.
Example (3)
3. 0 If the council
itself wants to be effective, they should get more training in real estate
terminology.
(Council is at first
treated as a whole and then shifted to referring to a group of individuals.)
Correction
3.1 If the council wants
to be effective, it should get more training in real estate terminology.
RUN-ON
OR FUSED SENTENCE: run on
This phrase refers to a
sentence having no punctuation between independent clauses when punctuation is
required.
Example Run-on or Fused Sentence:
She
passed the exam but Samantha did brilliantly.
(The subject changes from
'She' to 'Samantha' in the second independent clause)
Correction
She
passed the exam, but Samantha did brilliantly.
Example (2)
The
school's computer failed to function on registration day however the older forms
were used and everything went as planned.
(The sentence is ambiguous
because "however" could modify either of the two independent
clauses.)
Correction
The
school's computer failed to function on registration day; however, the older
forms were used and everything went as planned.
Alternative
The
school's computer failed to function on registration day. However, the older
forms were used and everything went as planned.
WRONG WORD OR MISUSE OF A WORD: usage
This comment
means that you have misused a word.
This is a very widespread problem but, as a student, you are in the business of
learning new terminologies--often in a variety of disciplines, so mistakes are
likely.
“Usage” is
a somewhat contentious term. In
everyday informal language, some
linguists claim that word usage is democratic—the majority rules. If the majority want to use “hopefully”
as a short form for “we hope” then so be it, (as in “hopefully you’ll come to the party”). “Hopefully” is really an adverb and if
you want to keep to its grammatical sense, it means that you will come to the party in a hopeful
state. However, academic prose and usage differs from
everyday speech and the rules are more precise than usage alone. Courses in a university exist in part
to help you construct knowledge or engage in research through a set of concepts
and methods specific to a discipline.
After some training, you are expected to learn the terms specific to the
methods, concepts and procedures of a discipline. Specialized terms thus express concepts and methods and, in the academic setting, clear
unambiguous use of them can strengthen your claims--you should then know the
definitions of your terminology and its typical uses.
In literary
studies, for instance, you are
expected to know the accurate use of terms like “criticism”, “image”, “autobiography”, “point of
view”, “romantic”,
“synecdoche”, “irony” or “public
sphere”. If there is a
problem with such use, it is simple to solve: look the term up in one of the many dictionaries of
literary terms and make sure you are using it accurately. One of the most quoted of these
dictionaries in literary studies is Abrams’s, Glossary of Literary
Terms. Most disciplines
have such dictionaries.
Incorrect
word usage can occur the specialized terminology of any discipline. One requirement is clear: make sure you are using specialized
terms correctly Another requirement:
Ask yourself whether you need to define specialized terminology that
lies outside the discipline in which you are writing, at least minimally.
So, if you are writing a
literary paper and have to use
words like “Freudian transference” or “retrovirus” then be prepared define
them.
MEANING UNCLEAR ambig (ambiguity)
Example 1
The first purpose of feminism used in romantic
poetry is to raise awareness in order to promote a balance of equality.
This
sentence is ambiguous because of poor usage of a number of terms. For example, there is the use of the term “first”. Does the student mean “first” in the
sense of chronology or first in the sense of importance? Second there is the
use of the term “feminism”. Does the student mean that
feminism was used in romantic poetry (1770-1830) to raise awareness, or does the student mean that
today, feminist criticism is so
used? Each of these has a
very different meaning and would require a very different set of illustrations
or proof to support the claim. If
the former, the way the word is
used also implies that poets deliberately used feminism, applying it to ‘raise awareness’. But could this be the case? It sounds as if poets like Barbauld
took Mary Wollstonecraft’s position and applied it like a program in order to
write poetry. Lastly, “balance of equality” is
redundant—would not the more
simple “promote equality” be more
clear?
Correction
Feminism as it appeared in romantic poems like
Anna Barbauld’s “Rights of Woman”
promoted equality and raised awareness but not with the same single mindedness
as did Wollstoncraft’s prose.
In
most kinds of writing an active and direct style is more effective than an
indirect style. The overuse of the
passive voice can weaken your argument because it imposes the complexity of an
indirection that your reader must undo to get your meaning.
The
passive is often used to affect formality. And as Orwell has indelibly told us, the passive voice can also be used to
hide responsibility or cloud the implications of an image or argument.
However, certain formal styles (usually
scientific or government reports) do favour this indirection, thus the
passive voice. In these contexts, who is doing the report or carrying out
the experiment is not so important as the report or the experiment itself. Also, in certain situations in any
text, the passive voice is a vital part of the meaning—when, for instance, you
wish to focus on the agent rather than the act. In the active voice the subject
is the agent, the "doer" of the action that is performed on the
object or predicate; in the passive voice the subject of the sentence is the
object of the action and the agent is placed in the predicate.
Examples of Active
Voice
1. Jill shut the door.
2. The logging company
polluted the lake.
3.
Examples of Passive
Voice
1.1 The door was shut by
Jill.
2.1 The lake was
polluted by the logging company.
3.1 The telephone was
invented by
None
of these are wrong if you wish to focus on the agent (Jill, the logging
company) rather than the act, (shutting a door, polluting a lake) but excessive
use can create an impression of vagueness. Here is a good example of obscure writing taken
from Orwell’s “Politics and the
English Language”:
If a new spirit is to be infused into this old
country, there is one thorny and contentious reform which must be tackled, and
that is the humanization and galvanization of the B.B.C.
(Make
the first sentence active by answering the questions “Who will infuse the new
spirit?” and “Who will tackle the
necessary reform?” In addition, replacing the vague general terms
“humanization” and “galvanization” with a specific plan could help make the
ideas clear, and the language more
effective.)
This mark usually refers to
incorrect uses of idiom or colloquial expressions, or to missing prepositions.
Examples of Misused Prepositions:
(1)
During the very first words of the novel, Dickens introduces us to the main
character.
(Poor usage if the first
sentence of the novel was meant.)
Better usage:
With the very first
words of the novel . . . ."
or
"In
the very first words of the novel. . . ."
(2)
(Should
be "of the
Unfortunately, (or
fortunately) there are no hard and fast rules in idiomatic usage.
The following is acceptable
idiom: "In the beginning was the word."
APOSTROPHE
MISSING FOR POSSESSIVE CASE: apos or poss
This note can mean that a
noun used to indicate a possessive form has not been inflected with 's or s'.
It can also refer to incorrect use of an apostrophe in contractions or personal
pronouns.
Examples
Incorrect:
The mariners glittering eye.
(Correct:
The mariner's glittering eye.)
Incorrect:
It's surface is studded with craters.
(Correct:
Its surface is studded with craters.)
Incorrect:
Its a boy!
(Correct:
It's a boy!)
(These uses of
"It's" and "its" may appear odd, but correct usage involves
understanding the idea of contractions and the rule of not using apostrophes
with possessive personal pronouns. Thus: "I thought it was hers" (not
"her's"). "It's" is a contraction like "I'll" for
"I will," and means "It is")
Incorrect:
The Governor Generals attire....
(Correct:
The Governor General's attire....)
(In a compound noun only
the last noun uses the apostrophe)
Incorrect:
Harry and Bert's bikes were not locked.
(Correct:
Harry's and Bert's bikes were not locked.)
('Harry and Bert' is not a
compound noun, but part of a compound subject.)
(Note, however, that proper
names in a subject can form a compound)
(Correct:
Harry and Bert's bike was not locked.)
(Harry and Bert share the
bike)
Incorrect:
One of Keats poems was read first.
(Correct:
One of Keats's poems was read first.)
(Sometimes Keats' is
found, but authorities differ)
Incorrect:
The mens locker room was off-limits.
(Correct:
The men's locker room was off-limits.)
(plural noun not
ending in s)
(Note that "mens' " is also
incorrect as "men" is the plural form.)
Correct:
The lady has a hat. But one lady's hat was missing.
Correct:
The two ladies' hats are on the sofa.
(plural noun ending in
s)
FAULTY
IDIOMATIC EXPRESSION idiom
Certain collocations of
words in English do not follow normal grammatical or word (lexical) usage;
their meaning is often figurative and they are used to add energy and depth to
a passage. Idioms are usually defined as those expressions not translatable
into a foreign language, but the mark can also refer to misuses of prepositions
or prepositional verbs, or to misuses of a technical vocabulary.
Some Examples of
Correct Idiomatic usage:
The customer flew into
in a rage.
It's raining cats and
dogs.
She looked like sin.
Nutty as a fruitcake (American).
The plane will leave any
minute now.
The meeting pretty well
settled the question (matter).
That’ll settle his bacon
(hash).
She wore dresses
deliberately out of fashion.
The range of substitution in
such expressions is limited. It would be awkward to say for instance "she
stamped out of a rage" or "the meeting settled by the
conclusion." Misuse of idiom can also be creative, but be careful—make sure you intend the
implication. Idioms also go in and out of fashion and new idioms are being
constantly created.
Some Examples of
Idiom in Prepositional Verbs
We must abide by
Robert's Rules of Order for the meeting
According to the evidence we must judge him
guilty.
He went into the
night.
You cannot compare him
to Eileen.
(compare to for
unlike classes)
You can compare his
poetry with Dante's.
(compare with for
like classes)
You need to follow your
line of argument to its logical conclusion.
This mark can refer to a
number of alignment or usage problems within a sentence that cause a problem in
logic or continuity. At other times, problems with the cohesion of an entire
argument may be meant by this mark; sometimes, for instance, the ideas developed
over the course of an entire essay may not warrant the conclusion drawn from
them; they use a faulty logic.
Examples of Faulty
Logic In Sentences
1. The building is surrounded
on one side by a long hedge.
(one surrounds a whole
building, not one side)
Correction
1.1 The building is bordered
on one side by a long hedge.
Example (2)
2. From the beginning of
time humanity has been making up theories of how the universe began, but they
can be sorted into two major parties.
(“Parties” refers to the
non-count noun "humanity".)
Correction
2.1 From the beginning
of time humans have been making up theories of how the universe began. These theorists can be sorted into two
major parties.
Example (3)
3. The Wright brothers are
known as the modern inventors of the airplane.
It was a small biplane with a
small motor.
("Modern inventors"
is the problem--it would, in this context, have to modify the invention not the inventor, especially in
the case of powered airplanes. It could be left out entirely here. The
exception would be if you had in mind comparing the Wright brothers with Da
Vinci or some earlier inventor; though Da Vinci’s plane was not flown in his time, nor did it have a motor).
Correction
3.1 The Wright brothers
are known as the inventors of the modern airplane.
It was a small biplane with a
small motor.
GENERALIZING (overgeneralization)
The kinds and range of
evidence given do not warrant your conclusion as it is stated. Either you have given no evidence or not
enough evidence.
Examples of Faulty
Logic in Argument.
1.0 As we have seen, there were three clear
instances of the kind of oxymoron I have been discussing in Hamlet and Macbeth.
Because we find the same figure in Pope, we can deduce quite securely that
Shakespeare was a strong influence on the eighteenth century use of this
rhetorical motif and was thus also a strong influence on Pope.
This is an example of overgeneralization.
The kinds and range of evidence given do not warrant the conclusion stated. The
student might have an interesting possibility in hand, but much more research
will be required before such a wide, double conclusion could be made credible,
or secure. How could you know that all of the eighteenth century was so
influenced? In addition, a detailed analysis of the figures involved, support
by expert testimony, use of other kinds of proof--like an exposition of Pope's
reading habits and a comparison with a number of his other important influences
would be required to uphold the claim about Pope.
Revision
As we have seen, the
three instances of the oxymoron that I have analyzed in Hamlet and Macbeth
are quite similar to those we found in The Rape of The Lock. This is not
enough evidence to talk about an influence, but it does suggest an interesting
possibility about how Pope might have read Shakespeare.
This mark refers to
elements that do not belong in a clause that parallels a previous clause
construction. The fault is sometimes a matter of style, sometimes
grammatical.
Examples of Faulty
Parallelism
(1)
Betty is healthy, wealthy, wise
and a scuba diver.
(the
first three elements in the list are predicate adjectives, the last is a
predicate noun)
Correction, (If you wish to communicate
Betty’s perfection)
Betty
is healthy, wealthy, athletic, and
wise.
(2)
Cats are sleek, beautiful, arrogant, kill for pleasure, and do not love their owners
at all times.
Correction,
(If you wish to communicate that cats are distant and elitist)
Cats
are sleek, beautiful, arrogant, murderous, and mildly loyal.
Sometimes a humorous
effect can result from juxtapositions like the two examples above. But make sure this is an effect you
intend. Unintended irony or humour
can clash with the import you did intend, and thus the passage will not
work in the way you wish it.
Technically in (2), the
first three elements in the parallel structure are predicate adjectives, but
"kill for pleasure" and "do not love…." are verb structures
that disrupt the predicate adjective pattern laid down at the beginning of the
sentence with "are sleek."
It would be difficult to say "Cats are kill for
pleasure". Ask whether a
disruption in clause pattern is useful for your overall purpose.
Long point lists often
group elements that do not belong together.
2.0 The
objectives of this course are to:
·
increase your critical knowledge of
American Government,
·
critical assessment of the ideals of
democracy,
·
underlying principles and
structures.
The first clause in the
list sets a pattern but the clauses that follow are not parallel or coordinate
structures. Can you say “The objectives of this course are to underlying
principles and structures”?
The solution is to begin each element in a point form list with the same
pattern; in this case to begin each with a verb.
Correction: The objectives of this course are to:
·
increase your critical knowledge of American
Government,
·
critically assess the ideals of democracy,
·
analyze underlying principles and
structures.
The meanings of this symbol
are numerous. Only the most frequently encountered examples of the comma,
semicolon and colon are indicated.
Example of Poor Comma Usage (comma)
If
you wish to write well don't use commas, which aren't necessary, be sure to use
punctuation that is check end punctuation Reimer warns us that punctuation is
especially important at the end of a quotation.
Both examples adapted
from Lewis Thomas, "Notes on Punctuation," in The Norton Reader:
An Anthology of Expository Prose, eds. Arthur M. Eastman et al., 6th ed.
(New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1984), p. 340.
This is a good example of
the importance of punctuation. The most obvious problem is the use of the
comma. The first clause, "If you wish to write well," is an
introductory clause requiring a comma. The second clause is a restrictive
clause that is being treated as a nonrestrictive clause. Restrictive clauses
are necessary to complete the meaning of a sentence; nonrestrictive clauses
provide additional, not essential, information. Nonrestrictive clauses are set
off with commas; restrictive clauses do not take commas.
Correction
If
you wish to write well, don't use commas which aren't necessary and be sure to
use punctuation that is. Check end punctuation; Reimer warns us that
"punctuation is especially important at the end of a quotation."
Example of Poor Semicolon Usage
(semicolon):
It is
almost always a greater pleasure to come across a semicolon than a period. The
period tells you that is that, if
you didn't get all the meaning you wanted or expected, you got all the writer
intended to parcel out and now you have to move along. With a semicolon you get
a pleasant feeling of expectancy, there is more to come, read on, it will get
clearer. Commas are likable, however sometimes semicolons are required.
In general the semicolon
indicates a closer tie of meaning between clauses than a period. Use it (1)
between independent clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction, (2)
between independent clauses joined by one of the conjunctive adverbs (like
"however" or "therefore") or (3) if there is internal
punctuation within an independent clause that has co-ordination.
Correction
It
is almost always a greater pleasure to come across a semicolon than a period.
The period tells you that is that; if you didn't get all the meaning you wanted
or expected, you got all the writer intended to parcel out and now you have to
move along. With a semicolon you get a pleasant feeling of expectancy; there is
more to come; read on; it will get clearer. Commas are likable; however,
sometimes semicolons are required.
Example Poor Use of
Some
of the endearing elements of this text are: its reasonable style, its
controlled passion and its colloquial speech.
(Do not place a colon after
a linking verb (all forms of 'to be'))
Generally use a colon to
introduce a series; to introduce sentence elements that explain, illustrate or
amplify other parts of a sentence; to introduce long, formal (that is
textual vs. spoken) quotations, and after 'the following' or 'as follows'.
Never use semicolons or colons to end a quotation.
Correction
Some
of the endearing elements of this text are its reasonable style, its controlled
passion and its use of colloquial speech.
Alternative (Academic
Style)
Some
of the important elements of this text are (1) its reasonable style, (2) its
controlled passion, and (3) its many colloquialisms.
Example (2)
The
administrator listed three possible minors for a major in this field,
psychology, statistics and social medicine.
Correction
The
administrator listed three possible minors for a major in this field:
psychology, statistics and social medicine.
PUNCTUATION
WITHIN QUOTATIONS AND PARENTHESES: p
Example
One gets tired of
shouting "Close Quotes!
Correction
One gets tired of
shouting, "Close Quotes!"
For end punctuation within
a quotation, periods and commas go inside the closing quotation marks;
semicolons and colons go outside them. Question marks, exclamation points, and
dashes can be put either outside or inside, (the decision depends on whether
they apply to your whole sentence or simply to the quotation). Three spaced
periods (ellipsis) indicate that some quoted material has been omitted; four
spaced ellipses indicate that a sentence period has also been omitted. Quoted
material within a quotation which is run into your text is enclosed in single
quotes.
General Example
"The
pleasure we get from reading a novel," said Demeraux, "stems . . .
from a certain sense of deception"; he later added that it "resembles
the feeling one has when something has been stolen." There was one
important qualification: "one is happy about the robbery"!
Can
we agree, though, with Mrs. Simpers when she slyly added, "I remember that
Capone used to say that he 'got his kicks from being the robber, not the
robbee'"?
Examples of Correct
Usage
(1)
Emerson replied, "There is no reason to doubt the president's
statement."
(2)
He has not defined "categorical imperative."
(3)
Krum then said, "I have just read
(4)
Forelli insisted on rewriting the paragraph. (I had encountered this
intransigence on another occasion.) He had other annoying habits.
(5)
The driver glanced at his rear-view mirror to observe the passenger, (the one
in the derby hat).
(6)
Kego had three objections to "Filmore's Summer": the action was
contrived, the characters were flat, and the dialogue was unrealistic.
(7)
Benjamin Franklin admonishes us to "plough deep while sluggards
sleep."
But:
As
(In the first example, the
quotation is an integral part of the essay writer's syntax and thus the first
letter of the quotation must be changed to lower case; in the second example,
the quotation is not run into the writer's syntax and thus the upper case
letter in the original must remain and, here, a comma is required.
INTRODUCING
EXPERT TESTIMONY: frame
The usual practice in the
academic style is to introduce secondary material in a clear, direct way so
that your reader can see the sources you have used and how you have used them.
Proper introduction and framing of sources is the first, important step toward
showing how you are going to evaluate secondary material and integrate it with
your own ideas. Properly used, framing prevents plagiarism and the use of
sources as applause for your ideas.
Example of a Poor
Frame
In
the following paper I will be showing how "travel literature often
exemplifies a search for personal as well as community identity." I will
show this through a great deal of quotation and other sources.
Correction
In
"Poverty of Home" (1926), Wallace Steigner thought the travel essay
“often exemplifies a search for personal as well as community identity,"
(59). However, today, his idea is something of a cliché and does not deal with
the problem of cultural appropriation.
Example of an
Effective Frame (2)
In 1952 Helen Darbishire
published the variants from a notebook kept by Sara Hutchinson in which she
copied poems by Wordsworth and Coleridge during and after the period Wordsworth
was working on "Resolution and
He
cut out the stanza ["he seem'd like one who little saw or heard," see
LG; 57-63] . . . and put in its place that stanza which is surely the
imaginative core of the poem ["As a huge stone, etc.," RI; 67-70] . .
. . Further he cut out from the Leechgatherer's speech his account of his
family's losses, and some at least of this difficulties over the leeches.3
When it has served their
argument critics have made use of the last of Miss Darbishire's discoveries,
noting with considerable relief how Wordsworth had the good sense to omit "the
deal is of the old man's history." No one, however, has pursued her
supposition about additions to the poems. (Curtis 99)
(This example has been
adapted from Jared R. Curtis, Wordsworth's Experiments with Tradition: The
Lyric Poems of 1802, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1971), p. 99.)
Note that the frame
introduces the authority, the date, and the critical work quite some time
before citations are made. In the above example you can see the care with which
the material is introduced. The work as a whole by Darbishire is first
explained in general terms before the quotation or specific paraphrase is
given. The date can be important but sometimes not. If your "Works
Cited" contains the work's title, the name of the author is often sufficient
in brief references after the first reference. When lengthy quotation is given,
the details of the quotation should be referred to and commented on extensively
both before and after the citation. In the excerpt above, the frame
continues after the quotation adding effective and insightful commentary about
the quoted material. Note also that '[]' square brackets can be used to include
commentary within a quotation supplied by you to explain or make clear an
obscure reference.
This is a complex matter
primarily because there are so many different types of texts that can be
integrated into an essay and so many different conditions within an essay in
which documentation is necessary. The common problems are (a) forgetting to
document a source (b) mixing of two systems of documentation, (c) misalignment
of the sense, grammar or punctuation of quoted material with the sense, grammar
or punctuation of your sentence, (d) finding the line between obvious
information that is common knowledge and information that is the result of
specialized research.
The following deals with
some typical conditions requiring citation of sources.
Example of an Absent Source
During
the period surveyed, (1758-1800) the usual number of presses quoted is 75; but
the exact figure is 104. Thus we can imagine that the publishing world Schwarz
survived in must have been highly competitive.
In a student paper, documentation
would probably be required after "104" either as a footnote number or
a parenthetical reference (Major 44) This would not be the case
only if the writer was claiming that he or she did the research and had found
and counted the presses.
Example of Misused
Source in Opening Paragraph
In
this paper I will be discussing a number of aspects of the revolution in
Here two things are
required: (1) a frame sentence like "As Pershall reminds us in English
Liberalism. . . . ," at the beginning of this paragraph; then (2) a page
reference following the quotation, (198). These are required because the claims
and facts in the text go beyond reference to common knowledge about the French
Revolution and indicate an authoritative source. The quoted material is too
close to the vocabulary, syntax and thought of the original source in
Pershall's work to be left without a citation. As it stands, the paragraph
claims this information as the writer's own knowledge, or the results of
primary research.
Sometimes, however, use of
the full frame of author and title before the quotation is a matter of
judgment, and is usually not necessary after a frame is already in
place--though documentation of the quotation is necessary, and the frame would
be maintained with "Pershall notes," or "Pershall
continues" or "As Pershall's research indicates" etc.
Sometimes the reference can
be expressed as a paraphrase with a reference afterward (Pershall 198)--with
the full citation following in the "Works Cited" page.
Documentation and framing
are not necessary for information that is common knowledge, (e.g. that Pierre
Trudeau was the PM in 1970, or that Abraham Lincoln was the president of the
The MLA has revised its
system to include the use of parenthetical references. Foot- or end-notes can
also be used in this style but they are kept to a minimum and are used for
comments, translation, definitions or explanatory material secondary to your
topic. If used, the endnotes page is called "Notes" and a "Works
Cited" page is required rather than an "Bibliography." As with
the traditional "Bibliography," the "Works Cited" page uses
a hanging indent and is in alphabetical order.
Example
We
have, then, shown the important personal condition leading to this
"reflection on cosmic uncertainty," (Grenge 204). But we must
recognize...
Note that "p."
and "pp." are not used. If you refer to consecutive pages, join them
with a hyphen (Grenge 12-21). Following notes referring to the same
author--with no intervening notes referring to other works--is shortened to
"(65)".
Example
(1) Another author with the same last
name:
(Arthur
Grenge 45)
(2) A work with two or three authors:
(Grenge,
Aloe and James Barstrom 44)
(3) A work with more than three authors:
(Grenge
et al. 24-67)
(4) Reference to the whole work:
(Grenge)
(5) More than one work by the same
author in "Works Cited":
(Grenge,
Hollywood 14-19)
(6) Poetry--first reference establishes
author & line:
(Williams,
line 4)
(7) Poetry--second ref., uses line
number(s) only:
(12-13)
(8) Play--act, scene, and line separated
by periods:
(3.1.56-89)
(Used after play title has
been established in frame.)
(9) Bible--book, chapter, verse sep.,
by periods:
(Gen.
1.28)
(10) Anthology--author's name and page
number
(Didion
45)
(but the "Works
Cited" page gives the full anthology information.)
(11) The "Works Cited" page
takes the following form:
Works
Cited
Grenge,
Bernard. Schwarz World.
The traditional MLA system
of footnote documentation is yet in practice and is preferred by some
instructors. However, the MLA parenthetical system is also now becoming widely
accepted. It is best to consult your instructor to find which system is
acceptable.
We
have, then, shown the important personal condition leading to what Grenge calls
"a reflection on cosmic uncertainty."1 But we must recognize...
(the note number is
superscripted one-half line height in the text and in the footnote)
_______________
1Bernard Grenge, Schwarz
World (New York: Reese Press, 1981), p. 204.
This is the standard MLA
footnote style for a book by a single author. This first footnote should be
written out in full. It could also go on its own separate page which has the
title Notes (no quotation marks or underlining). This is placed at the end of
the paper before the bibliography page; it is then called an 'end-note' rather
than a 'footnote.' In both cases, the form of the first line of the note is
indented (no other lines in the reference are indented) and the note number is
in superscript. Note that the form of the foot- or end-note is not the same as
a bibliographical entry.
MLA Examples
(1) A first note with subsequent
references to the same work to follow:
1Bernard
Grenge, Schwarz World (
1981), p. 204. All subsequent references to
this text will
appear in the body of the essay.
(2) Brief form: After this first note,
the work can be referred to by page number in your text directly after the
quotation:
".
. . 'The way things were' was no longer acceptable" (p. 59).
(3) Ibid., is sometimes used as
a brief form in notes.
“Ibid.,
p. 150”
(Ibid. is short or ibidem
Latin for "in the same place") When there are intervening quotations
from another work, refer back to a previous work with the author's name and
page number,
"
(4) A work with two or three authors:
Bernard
Grenge and George Barstrom,
(5) A work with more than three authors:
Bernard
Grenge et al.,
(6) An author and an editor:
Thomas
de Quincey, Recollections of the Lake Poets, ed. David
Wright (1970; rpt.
Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1978), pp. 135-37.
(7) An anthology:
David
Perkins ed., English Romantic Writers, (
Harcourt, 1967), pp.
12-68.
(8) Poetry--usually no foot- or end-note
is required; use line numbers or Sections (Books, Cantos, Division numbers)
& lines in your text:
In
(9) Play--author, play, act, scene and
line(s):
Shakespeare,
Hamlet I.i.10-15.
(10) Bible--book, chapter, verse:
Matthew
10:3.
(11) The MLA traditional, bibliographical
entry takes the following form:
Bibliography
Grenge,
Bernard. Schwarz World.
(Note
the double-space after periods and colons.)
ELECTRONIC SOURCES esources
Sources found on the internet are sometimes reliable, but they are often not reliable You are being trained in ways to
evaluate your sources, and you should be very careful with internet sites. First rule: a university or publication site will
likely be more reliable than a privately maintained site.
For changeable electronic sources, use this format:
Author's name. Full title (articles in quotation marks,
books italicized). Title of any larger document of which it is a part. Date of
publication or most recent revision, date accessed, and the full URL address
enclosed in angle brackets (< >). Here are two examples:
Ford, Andrew. "The Electronic Beowulf.:
From Early Anglo-Saxon Text to Hypertext." Electronic
Proceedings of "The Second World-Wide Web Conference '94: Mosaic
and the Web.
<http//archive.ncsa.uiuc.edu/SDG/IT94/Proceedings/Arts/ford/beowulfpaper.html>
Harnack, Andrew, and Gene Kleppinger. "Beyond the MLA Handbook:
Documenting Electronic Sources
on the Internet." Kairos 1.2 (1996). 10 Oct 1996. <http://english.ttu.edu/kairos/1.2>
CD-ROMs and other portable
sources:
For unchangeable electronic sources, the citation in the "Works
Cited" list includes the author, title, and date information, just as for
print documents. After the title of the database, there is a period, followed
by the producer's name and date of the product, if available. Finally, include
the date you accessed the information.
Kiernan, Kevin, Ed. The Electronic
Beowulf. British Library Publications and U of Michigan P. 2000.
July 2002.
(The preceding is based on the SFU Dept. of English Style
Sheet)
ACCURACY
OF QUOTATION: Q or quotation
Generally the rule states that
sources enclosed in double quotations, or blocked out in your text, mark a verbatim
(word for word) transcription. The block style is used for quotations of
more than fifty words or if you want the text to receive special notice. It can
be single spaced, though double spacing is also acceptable. Explanatory
material can be added within a quotation, but it must be enclosed in square
brackets--not parentheses. This mark generally refers to inaccurate or poorly
laid out quotations.
Example
(The numbers in the
following refer to typed spaces.)
<5>White's skillful shading of
traditional narrative in the Solid Mandala into an inner monologue can
be seen clearly whenever Waldo is described.
<10>
They
were proud of Waldo though, especially when he jumped up, in his just
buttonable knickerbockers, to offer a plate of scones without being prodded.
Strangers compared him with potty Arthur, who would have scoffed the lot. Big
lump of a thing sitting on a creaking stool, knees under his chin, crumbs
tumbling down his chin onto his knees. (75)
(1.5 line spaces above
and below)
The narrator's audience
has clearly changed by the time we have reached the description of Waldo as a
"big lump."
Example Short Poem
In
"It Is a Beauteous Evening" we can see the same paradoxical merging
of time and space. In this line, there is again a tranquil mood. "The
gentleness of heaven broods o'er the sea"; and we are admonished to listen
because "the mighty Being is awake, / And doth with his eternal motion
make / A sound like thunder-- everlastingly." An "everlasting
sound" is an oxymoron of the same type as "spots of time."
Note that
virgules--slashes--have been used to mark line breaks and that the titles of
short poems are enclosed in double quotation marks. Titles of longer poems are
underlined. No line numbers are required in a short poem.
Example Long Poem
We come across the
"glittering eye" again quite soon after the appearance of the ghost
ship. In Part 4, though, the Wedding Guest's attitude has changed from
annoyance to a reaction to a riveting mystery; the Mariner has become someone
to be feared:
"I
fear thee, ancient Mariner!
I
fear thy skinny hand!
And
thou art long, and lank, and brown
As
is the ribbed sea-sand.
I
fear thee and thy glittering eye,
And
thy skinny hand, so brown."- -
Fear
not, fear not, thou Wedding- Guest!
This
body dropped not down. (224-231)
Because all of our
experiences of sight have so far been negative, the mariner's "glittering
eye" now has connotations of evil; perhaps it is an evil eye. To the
wedding guest, the mariner seems to have risen from a grave.
In MLA parenthetical, for
first reference use (Coleridge 4.224-231). Use the line numbers as in
the example above only if the poem and canto, part or book, have been already
established-- both after the last line.
REDUNDANT redundant
The unnecessary repetition of a word or a close relative--or wordiness, or sometimes the unaware doubling of a concept in an expression—often a synonym has been used though there is no reason to use it.
Some examples
The tree bark, the exterior surface of the tree, was not in good shape.
(the clause adds nothing new to the meaning)
In my opinion, I think the action was wrong.
(‘your thought” was already expressed in ‘in my opinion’)
The author Daniel Seaforth in the article “Seeming as Place” in 1989, …..
(we know Seaforth was the author)
Some well known redundancies from Messenger and De Bruyn’s The Canadian Writer’s Handbook 2nd edition, p. 318:
Advance planning
But nevertheless
More preferable
Other alternative
Character trait
Climb up
Close scrutiny
Consensus of opinion
Continue on
Contributing factor
CONTINUITY
OF DEVELOPMENT: transition (or continuity)
Lack of attention to
transitions between sentences and between paragraphs can, at its mildest, mean
a choppy style and, at its worst, lack of structural coherence in your
essay. To help ensure continuity
first check the logical development of your ideas and that you have met the
formal expectations of your paper; on a smaller scale, effective repetition,
parallel structures, pronoun reference, and use of key words and their synonyms
are the organic ways of ensuring continuity.
Example of choppy style
caused by poor transitions:
Energy
overthrows repressive reason, and in the "The Tyger" the forests are
those of Urizen where the Tyger rises in revolt to flee the "distant
deeps" from where it was created. In Blake's time the ideals embodied
within the movement of the French Revolution also influenced his prophetic
writings. The Tyger rises to meet mankind and the "sinews of revolt are
knotted into existence."
Revision
As
we have seen in The Marriage of Heaven And Hell, energy can overthrow
reason. In that revolutionary document, a key idea was the liberation of
humanity from oppressive institutions like the established church and marriage.
The Tyger flashes with a similar potential: the overthrowing of Urizen's
repressive rule. We also know that Blake at this period thought well of the
ideals of the French Revolution, and thus the fiery Tyger is a precursor
to the Orc figure who will appear in "
Note the use of
"energy" and its close correlate "fire" to form a
continuous development of the notion of revolt. Also note the number of
references to previous ideas and the use of the transitional terms (italicized)
"that," "thus," "also," and "then".
List of Transitional
Terms:
(1) Addition:
and,
also, besides, moreover, another, in addition, further
(2) Similarity:
similarly,
likewise, equally, in other words, in the same way, again
(3) Differences:
but,
yet, however, nevertheless, despite, in spite of, on the other hand, still,
though, although, even though, whereas, on the contrary, in contrast,
otherwise, conversely
(4) Cause & Effect
& Logical Relation:
because,
for, since, as a result, consequently, therefore, then, thus, of course, hence
(5) Example &
Illustration:
for
example, for instance, namely, to illustrate, that is, in particular,
specifically
(6) Emphasis:
especially,
mainly, primarily, chiefly, indeed, more important
(7) Time:
at
the same time, simultaneously, while, meanwhile, later, earlier, subsequently,
then, before, behind, nearby, in the distance, farther away, to the left, here,
there, next.
The
Bibliography or Works Cited page is an important way of showing where you got
the evidence for your claims. It
should contain all works you cite or paraphrase. It should be alphabetized with a hanging indent on the
second and any succeeding lines. It has a different format than a
footnote: generally, first name
last, periods between sections,
articles from periodicals use page numbers but not books.
A Manual of Style for Authors,
Editors and Copywriters. 12th ed., rev. Chicago:
Bell, James B., and Edward P.J. Corbett. The
Little English Handbook for Canadians. 2nd ed.
Edward A. Dornan and Charles W. Dawe. The
Brief English Handbook, 3d. ed. Scott, Foresman/Little, 1990.
Heffernan, James A. W., and John E. Lincoln. Writing:
A College Handbook.
Thomas, Lewis. "Notes on
Punctuation." The Norton Reader: An Anthology of Expository Prose.
Eds. Arthur M. Eastman et al. 6th
ed.
William E. Messenger and J. De Bruyn, The
Canadian Writer's Handbook.
2nd ed.
Giltrow, Janet. Academic Writing:
How To Read and Write Scholarly
Prose.
_________
*'Works Cited' could be
'Bibliography' in MLA traditional.
*'Works Consulted' is
for works on your topic that you have read but not explicitly cited in your text.