ETHNOBIOLOGY

Definitions & History of Ethnobiology Briefly Considered

     Ethnobiology has been defined as "the study of the direct interrelationships between human populations and the plants and animals in their environment" (Ford 1986). It consists of the subdisciplines ethnobotany (treating plants and people) and ethnozoology (treating animals and people). It is a broad discipline, minimally involving concepts, methods, and goals of anthropology, biology, and linguistics. It includes the study of the knowledge and cultural roles of biological species within present-day human cultures as well as the interpretation of plant and animals remains within the historical and archaeological contexts. Many ethnobiological studies deal with the nomenclature (names for organisms), terminology (general terms for plant and animal parts), and classification systems (how organisms are considered to be related to one another) applied to organisms in non-English and non-scientific terms but with reference to the English and scientific considerations.
     John Harshberger defined the field of ethnobotany during an 1895 public lecture on the analysis of plant remains from an archaeological site in the Mancos Cañon, Colorado. Shortly thereafter Harshberger (1896) published his results, defining the field of "ethno-botany" in broad terms. Prior to this, other workers were already studying and documenting the uses of plants by indigenous peoples of North America.
     A number of ethnobotanical studies appeared in North America during the late 19th century, but clearly defined ethnozoological studies did not appear until later and there is no clear definitive starting date for this discipline. The first ethnozoologically oriented report was that of Stearns (1889), who wrote about "ethno-conchology," the study of shell money.
     Prior to the execution of formal and studies, many ethnobiological observations had been noted and documented by European explorers and missionaries who came to North America during the early period of European contact. The earliest of these observations were of a limited and casual, rather than a comprehensive and scientific, nature. As Europeans became increasingly interested in the indigenous peoples and wildlife of North America, their focus on documenting the plant and animal uses of indigenous peoples sharpened.
     The indigenous human communities of North America originally communicated between themselves and across the generations without resort to written documentation. For this reason, all traditional ethnobiological knowledge originally resided within the memories of living persons. As Europeans and other newcomers continued to arrive on this continent, including what is now British Columbia, many changes took place with respect to the traditional lifestyles and practices of indigenous peoples. The introduction of exogenous diseases, societal traits, and technologies, combined with Euro-canadian suppression of indigenous languages and cultural practices, combined to diminish the extent of traditional indigenous ethnobiological knowledge.
     In light of these changes, anthropologist, ethnographers, linguists, and biologists increasingly devoted their attention to ethnobiological matters. As a result, in British Columbia many studies now have been conducted on the ethnobotanical (and to a lesser degree, ethnozoological) aspects of local First Nations.

Context & Purposes of Ethnobiological Research

     During the last century a number of workers have documented various aspects of the culture and language of the Halkomelem peoples (e.g., Hill-Tout 1902, 1904, 1907; Maud 1978a, 1978b; Suttles 1955, 1990). Within their studies these workers have addressed many questions regarding the traditional knowledge and use of botanical and zoological species. Some workers (e.g., Galloway 1979, Stó:lo Nation and Galloway 1982; Gerdts et al. 1997; Suttles 1955, ca. 1955-1961) have made attempts to document specific information regarding a wide range of plants and animals, including their Halkomelem, English, and scientific identities; their uses and other cultural roles; and the ways in which Halkomelem people classify those organisms according to cultural, rather than scientific, criteria.
     Yet, a number of questions surrounding the identification, use, and other aspects of many biological species remain unanswered. For example, many bird species have been identified in Halkomelem terms but their English and scientific identities remain a mystery. This same situation exists for a number of other amphibians, reptiles, fishes, plants, and other species. For these reasons, it remains a valid exercise to continue research on Halkomelem ethnobiology.
     The results of such studies are important for several reasons. In their most basic sense, First Nations ethnobiological reports represent unique aspects of the human experience. As such, they contribute to a fuller recognition and appreciation by Euro-canadians and others of the extent, sophistication, and significance of ecological knowledge and cultural features of First Nations cultures. Many of the oldest First Nations community members who participated in or were directly aware of First Nations' lifestyles at the start of this century are no longer living and able to share their knowledge with younger generations. Further, because of the effects of Euro-canadian acculturation, many younger First Nations persons have not experienced first-hand learning of much traditional knowledge and activities from their Elders. For these reasons ethnobiological information can provide a valuable service by enabling younger First Nations people to re-learn cultural and biological aspects of their natural environment.

Some Comments on the Validity of Traditional Ethnobiological Knowledge

     First Nations, including Halkomelem, peoples have inhabited what is now known as British Columbia for millennia prior to the arrival of Europeans and other peoples. During this time they developed intimate knowledge of their surroundings, including a wide range of plants and animals. They learned how to locate, harvest, and process biological materials for use as food, medicine, technological instruments, and other items. They also developed deep respect for these living organisms and incorporated them in a myriad of ways into their spiritual beliefs and practices, many of which are retained and held sacred by contemporary First Nations peoples
     The traditional Halkomelem knowledge of plants, animals, and the landscapes and other concepts associated with them is inherently valuable as a fundamental component of Halkomelem history and self-identity. From a scientific perspective, such knowledge is of additional significance as it derives from millennia of human experience; a time frame much greater than the experience of non-native peoples in the regions and extending beyond the beginning of modern science itself.

Ethnobiological Research Methods

     This document is not intended to provide extensive details on the design and practice of ethnobiological research. Such information may be obtained from a variety of other sources (e.g., the People and Plants Online Web site). Furthermore, any research project should involve the participation and guidance of representatives of the study community during the planning and research portions of the project. Rather, it is our intent to present some brief aspects of what may be involved in research such as that leading to the documentation of information presented on this Web site.

Ethnographic & Linguistic Sources: Ethnographic and linguistic materials produced by anthropologists and linguists often comprise the most detailed early written records involving plants and animals for First Nations cultures such as the Halkomelem. These materials are among the first to be considered prior to conducting modern ethnobiological research. They can provide a range of information regarding the First Nations, English, and scientific names of organisms, as well as many cultural roles of those species. Typically, however, these early materials are incomplete and may not have employed rigorous biological methods to ascertain with certainty the scientific identifications of plants and animals with Halkomelem names and uses.

Biological Information: There are many sources of information on the biological species that occur within British Columbia (e.g., Pojar and MacKinnon 1994). These materials can be extremely useful in determining what species may occur within the territory of a First Nations cultural group, such as the Halkomelem. This information is useful because it can indicate what species are likely to have been known and used among groups such as the Halkomelem.

First Nations Community Members: While a review of the aforementioned materials may be extremely useful to any ethnobiological research project, Ultimately it is the living members of First Nations communities who are the most important sources of information regarding traditional ethnobiological matters. Elders, the most senior members of communities, typically are the people who have the most extensive knowledge regarding the names, uses, and other aspects of plants and animals. Often, they were raised in circumstances where their parents, grandparents, or other community members instructed them and included them in traditional cultural activities that allowed them to learn about plants and animals. Consultation with Elders and other knowledgeable community members is of critical significance to any successful ethnobiological project.

Research Tools: Many materials and technique may assist in the documentation of traditional ethnobiological knowledge. Ideally, researchers should collect fresh specimens of the plants that are discussed by Elders in order to identify them with certainty in First Nations language, English, and scientific terms (see Nomenclature, Terminology, & Classification). These specimens may be gathered during field trips with the participating Elders. If fresh specimens are not available, preserved specimens of plants as well as animals may be helpful. Such materials may be available from a variety of academic or other facilities (e.g., museums with natural history collections). Photographs of the species in question also may be helpful in ascertaining species identifications. For some animals, notably birds, audio recordings may be extremely useful, if not absolutely necessary, for Elders to consult in making their identifications. Some identifications may be deduced by a combination of tools and techniques, including the use of specimens, photographs, and audio recordings in combination with Elders' descriptions and ancillary comments regarding the organisms in question. The identification of ethnobiological species is important so that all additional information regarding uses, etc. that is provided by Elders may be properly associated with the correct species.