Raising: subject-to-subject

Linguistics 322

The term raising is often used to selectively refer to the raising of NPs to the subject position of a higher clause or to another position in a higher clause. See raising. Here, we examine raising out of tenseless clauses (infinitives). Consider the following pair of sentences.

(1)   It seems that John is happy.

(2)   John seems to be happy.

Note that this pair of sentences is nearly synonymous. (1) consists of two basic propositions:

(3)   SEEM <X>

(4)   X= HAPPY <exp: JOHN>

X is an incomplete proposition in that it cannot be falsified. What is falsifiable is the main proposition:

(5)    It doesn't seem that John is happy.

Propositional arguments are not normally assigned a theta-role. This is no real problem as it can be shown in advanced work that each theta role is nothing more than the name of an argument of a specific kind of eventuality. We could not bother or we could call it 'event':

(6)   SEEM <event: X>.

It is a moot point whether be is part of the propositional structure. In our view it is not; it is inserted as a dummy verb. Both basic propositions are modified by TENSE--[-Past]:

(7)   [-Irreal] < [-Past] < [-Pass < SEEM <X>]]

(8)   X= [MOOD[?]] < [-Past] < [-Pass] < HAPPY <exp: JOHN>.

(7) and (8) are merged into a single string (Chomsky calls this a generalized transformation):

 (9)   [TP [-Past] [seem [TP [-Past] [John (be) happy]]]]

Now note that the basic propositions of (2) are the same as (1) even though John is the subject of seems. It is John who is happy. The difference between (1) and (2) lies in the tense of the embedded clause. In (1) it is modified by [-Past], but in (2) there is no formal tense differentiation. This construction is often called an infinitive clause, the tense form of the verb the infinitive. It is marked with the form to in English:

(8)   [TP [-Past] [seem X]]

(9)   X=[TP [-Tense] [John (be) happy]].

(8) and (9) are merged into a single string:

 (10)   [TP [-Past] [seem [TP [-Tense] [John (be) happy]]]]

Syntactically, the subject of the embedded clause raises to the subject position of the matrix clause:

(11)   

[-tense] is spelled out as the particle to in English. There is some debate to what category this particle is. We won't get into this issue here. To is a free standing form--it requires no host. Hence there is no targeted movement. [-Past] targets seem and lowers. John raises first from the verb and adjoins to TP, then it raises again and adjoins to TP in the matrix clause. The rational for raising is discussed in case theory, but see also .theta roles.

Raising verbs include seem, appear, and several passives formed with pleonastic pronouns:

(12)    It is believed that Mary is sad.

(13)    Mary is believed to be sad.

Other such passive verbs include understood, thought, said, presumed, assumed, and so forth.

There are raising adjectives:

(14)      It is likely that Mary will go.

(15)      Mary is likely to go.

Some adjectives are raising only in that they do not subcategorize a tensed complement:

(16)     *It is apt that Mary will go.

(17)     *Mary is apt to go.

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